Email Subscription

Wednesday, August 3, 2016

Ancient Semitic religion

Ancient Semitic religion encompasses the polytheistic religions of the Semitic peoples from ancient Near East and Northeast Africa. Its origins are intertwined with Mesopotamian mythology. Since the term Semiticitself represents a rough category when referring to cultures, as opposed to languages, the definitive bounds of the term "ancient Semitic religion" are only approximate.
Semitic traditions and their pantheons fall into regional categories: Canaanite religions of the Levant,Sumerian tradition-inspired Assyro-Babylonian religion, and pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism. Semiticpolytheism possibly transitioned into Abrahamic monotheism by way of the god El, whose name is a word for "god" in Hebrew, cognate to Islam's Allah.

Proto-Semitic pantheon[edit]

Abbreviations: Ac. Akkadian-Babylonian; Ug. Ugaritic; Pp. Phoenician; Ib. Hebrew; Ar. Arabic; OSA Old South Arabian; Et. Ethiopic
  • ʼIlu - "god" (Sky god, head of pantheon: Ac. Ilu, Ug. il, Pp. ʼl/Ēlos, Ib. El/Elohim, Ar. Allāh, OSA ʼl).
  • ʼAṯiratu - (Ilu's wife: Ug. aṯrt, Ib. Ašērāh, OSA ʼṯrt) - The meaning of the name is unknown. She is also called ʼIlatu "goddess" (Ac. Ilat, Pp. ʼlt, Ar. Allāt).
  • ʻAṯtaru - (God of Fertility: Ug. ʻṯtr, OSA ʻṯtr, Et. ʻAstar sky god).
  • ʻAṯtartu - (Goddess of Fertility: Ac. Ištar, Ug. ʻṯtrt, Pp. ʻštrt / Astarte, Ib. ʻAštoreṯ). The meaning of the name is unknown and not related to ʼAṯiratu.
  • Haddu/Hadadu - (Storm god: Ac. Adad, Ug. hd, Pp. Adodos). The meaning of the name is probably "thunderer". This god is also known as Baʻlu"husband, lord" (Ac. Bel, Ug. bʻl, Pp. bʻl'/Belos, Ib. Baʻal).
  • Śamšu - "sun" (Sun goddess: Ug. špš, OSA: šmš, but Ac. Šamaš is a male god).
  • Wariḫu - "moon" (Moon god: Ug. yrḫ, Ib. Yārēaḥ, OSA wrḫ).

Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia[edit]

Main article: Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Further information: Babylonian religion, Enûma Eliš, Marduk, Epic of Gilgamesh, and Ashur (god)
When the five planets were identified, they were associated with the sun and moon and connected with the chief gods of the Babylonian pantheon. A bilingual list in the British Museum arranges the sevenfold planetary group in the following order:[1]
The religion of the Assyrian Empire (sometimes called Ashurism) centered on Ashur, patron deity of the city of Assur, and Ishtar, patroness of Nineveh. The last positively recorded worship of Ashur and other Assyrian gods dates back to the 3rd century AD.[2][3]
Ashur, the patron deity of the eponymous capital from the Late Bronze Age, was in constant rivalry with the patron deity of Babylon, Marduk. In Assyria, Ashur eventually superseded Marduk, even becoming the husband of Ishtar.
The major Assyro-Babylonian and Akkadian gods were:
Major Assyro-Babylonian demons and heroes were:

Canaan[edit]

Main article: Ancient Canaanite religion
Further information: Torah and Origins of Judaism
The Canaanite religion was the religion of the people living in the ancient Levant throughout the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Until the excavation of the city of Ras Shamra (also known as Ugarit) in Northern Syria and the discovery of its Bronze Age archive of clay tablet alphabetic cuneiform texts,[9] little was known of Canaanite religion. Papyrus seems to have been the preferred writing material for scribes at the time. Unlike the papyrus documents found in Egypt, these have simply decayed from exposure to the humid Mediterranean climate. As a result, the accounts in the Bible are the primary sources of information on ancient Canaanite religion. These accounts are supplemented by several secondary and tertiary Greek sources, including Lucian of Samosata's treatise De Dea Syria (The Syrian Goddess), fragments of the Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos, and the writings of Damascius. Additional information about the religion has been uncovered through recent study of the Ugaritic material[10] and inscriptions from the Levant and Tel Mardikharchive[11] (excavated in the early 1960s).
The Canaanite religion shows the clear influence of Mesopotamian and Egyptian religious practices. Like other peoples of the ancient Near East, the Canaanites were polytheistic, with families typically focusing worship on ancestral household gods and goddesses while acknowledging the existence of other deities such as Baal, Anath, and El.[12] Kings also played an important religious role and in certain ceremonies, such as the sacred marriage of theNew Year Festival, and may have been revered as gods.
According to the pantheon, which is known in Ugarit as 'ilhm (Elohim) or the children of El (cf. the Biblical "sons of God"), the creator[clarification needed] was known as Elion (Biblical El Elyon), who was the father of the divinities. In the Greek sources he was married to Beruth (Beirut, the city). The pantheon was supposedly obtained by Philo of Byblos from Sanchuniathon of Berythus (Beirut). This marriage of the deity with the city seems to have Biblical parallels with the stories that link Melkart and Tyre; Yahweh and Jerusalem; Tanit and Baal Hammon in Carthage. El Elyon is mentioned as God Most High in Genesis 14.18–19 as the God whose priest was Melchizedek king of Salem.
Philo further states that Uranus and Ge (Greek names for Heaven and Earth) were born from the union of El Elyon and his consort. This closely parallels the opening verse of Genesis 1:1 In the beginning God (Elohim) created the Heavens (Shemayim) and the Earth (Eretz). It also parallels the story of the Babylonian Anunaki.

Abrahamic religions[edit]

Further information: Panbabylonism
The Enuma Elish has been compared to the Genesis creation narrative.[13][14][15][16] Some writers trace the story of Esther to Babylonian roots.[17]
El Elyon also appears in Balaam's story in Numbers and in Moses song in Deuteronomy 32.8. The Masoretic Texts suggest:
When the Most High (`Elyōn) divided to the nations their inheritance, he separated the sons of man (Ādām); he set the bounds of the people according to the number of the sons of Israel.
Rather than "sons of Israel", the Septuagint, the Greek Old Testament, suggests the angelōn theou[clarification needed], or "angels of God", and a few versions even have huiōn theou (sons of God). The Dead Sea Scrolls version of this suggests that there were in fact 70 sons of the Most High God sent to rule over the 70 nations of the Earth. This idea of the 70 nations of Earth, each ruled over by one of the Elohim (sons of God), is also found in Ugaritic texts. The Arslan Tash inscription suggests that each of the 70 sons of El Elyon was bound to their people by a covenant. Thus, Crossan[who?] translates:
The Eternal One (`Olam) has made a covenant oath with us,
Asherah has made (a pact) with us.
And all the sons of El,
And the great council of all the Holy Ones (Qedesh).
With oaths of Heaven and Ancient Earth.


Posted by at No comments:

Tuesday, August 2, 2016

Temple of Mnajdra

Mnajdra (Maltese: L-Imnajdra) is a megalithic temple complex found on the southern coast of theMediterranean island of Malta. Mnajdra is approximately 500 metres from the Ħaġar Qim megalithiccomplex. Mnajdra was built around the fourth millennium BCE; the Megalithic Temples of Malta are among the most ancient religious sites on Earth,[1] described by the World Heritage Sites committee as "unique architectural masterpieces."[2] In 1992 UNESCO recognized the Mnajdra complex and four other Maltese megalithic structures as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[3] In 2009 work was completed on a protective tent.[4]

Design[edit]


Interior of the megalithic structure

Dressed limestone
Mnajdra is made of coralline limestone, which is much harder than the soft globigerina limestone of Ħaġar Qim. The main structural systems used in the temples are corbelling with smaller stones, and post and lintel construction using large slabs of limestone.
The cloverleaf plan of Mnajdra appears more regular than that of Ħagar Qim, and seems reminiscent of the earlier complex atGgantija. The prehistoric structure consists of three conjoined but not connected temples: the upper, middle and lower.[5][6]
The upper temple is the oldest structure in the Mnajdra complex and dates to the Ggantija phase (3600-3200 BC).[7] It is a three-apsed building, the central apse opening blocked by a low screen wall. The pillar-stones were decorated with pitmarks drilled in horizontal rows on the inner surface.[8]
The middle temple was built (or possibly rebuilt) in the lateTarxien phase (3150 – 2500 BC), the main central doorway of which is formed by a hole cut into a large piece of limestone set upright, a type of construction typical of other megalithic doorways in Malta. This temple appears originally to have had a vaulted ceiling, but only the base of the ceiling now remain on top of the walls [9] and, in fact, is the most recent structure. It is formed of slabs topped by horizontal courses.
The lowest temple, built in the early Tarxien phase, is the most impressive and possibly the best example of Maltese megalithic architecture. It has a large forecourt containing stone benches, an entrance passage covered by horizontal slabs, one of which has survived, and the remains of a possibly domed roof.[10] The temple is decorated with spiral carvings and indentations, and pierced by windows, some into smaller rooms and one onto an arrangement of stones.[7]

Functions[edit]

The lowest temple is astronomically aligned and thus was probably used as an astronomical observation and/or calendrical site.[11] On the vernal and the autumnal equinox sunlight passes through the main doorway and lights up the major axis. On the solstices sunlight illuminates the edges of megaliths to the left and right of this doorway.[12]
Although there are no written records to indicate the purpose of these structures, archaeologists have inferred their use from ceremonial objects found within them: sacrificial flint knives and rope holes that were possibly used to constrain animals for sacrifice (since various animal bones were found).[citation needed] These structures were not used as tombs since no human remains were found.[13] The temples contain furniture such as stone benches and tables that give clues to their use. Many artifacts were recovered from within the temples suggesting that these temples were used for religious purposes, perhaps to heal illness and/or to promote fertility.[11]

Recent findings[edit]

Recent research shows that this was primarily a solar year calendar and astronomical observatory. The design, based on the principle of the camera obscura, was the result of long evolution from the earliest archaic design, such as the small unit at the site. The image of the sunrise was translated mathematically into a linear passage of days. In the archaic design this was done in the central apse which converted sinusoidal movement of the image of the sunrise on the horizon into a linear progression. In the evolved design the solstice stone translated sinusoidal movement into linear directly and more accurately. Besides calendric information, the later design was found to enable forecasting of the solstice date (and hour) with surprising accuracy.

Excavations and recent history[edit]

The excavations of the Mnajdra temples were performed under the direction of J.G. Vance in 1840, one year after the discovery of Ħagar Qim.[8] In 1871, James Fergusson designed the first plan of the megalithic structure. The plan was quite inaccurate and hence in 1901, Dr. Albert Mayr made the first accurate plan which was based on his findings.[14] In 1910, Dr. Thomas Ashby performed further investigations which resulted in the collection of the important archaeological material. Further excavations were performed in December 1949, in which two small statues, two large bowls, tools and one large spherical stone, which was probably used to move the temple's large stones, were discovered.[14]
The temple was included on the Antiquities List of 1925.[15]
Mnajdra was vandalized on 13 April 2001, when at least three people armed with crowbars toppled or broke about 60 megaliths, and inscribed graffiti on them. The attack was called "the worst act of vandalism ever committed on the island of Malta" by UNESCO.[16] The damage to the temples was initially considered as irreparable,[17] but they were restored using new techniques making it difficult to tell where the megaliths had been damaged. The temples were reopened to the public in 2002.[18]
The 1, 2 and 5 cent Maltese euro coins, minted since 2008, bear a representation of the Mnajdra temples on their obverse side.
A protective shelter was constructed around Mnajdra (along with Ħaġar Qim) in 2009.

Gallery[edit]

  • A total view of the structure
    •  
  • Ruins of the upper (oldest) temple
    •  
  • Remains of Mnajdra
    •  
  • An important graffito representing a roofed megalithic temple found in Mnajdra
    •  
  • Solar angles
    •  
  • Map of the Mnajdra temple
    •   


Posted by at No comments:

Monday, August 1, 2016

Tarxien Temples

The Tarxien Temples (Maltese pronunciation: [ˈtarʃi.ɛn]) are an archaeological complex in Tarxien, Malta. They date to approximately 3150 BC.[1] The site was accepted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 along with the other Megalithic temples on the island of Malta.

Description[edit]


View into the South Temple though the trilithon doorway reconstructed in the 1950s.
The Tarxien consist of three separate, but attached, temple structures. The main entrance is a reconstruction dating from 1956, when the whole site was restored. At the same time, many of the decorated slabs discovered on site were relocated indoors for protection at the Museum of Archaeology in Valletta. The first temple has been dated to approximately 3100 BC and is the most elaborately decorated of the temples of Malta. The middle temple dates to about 3000 BC, and is unique in that, unlike the rest of the Maltese temples, it has three pairs of apses instead of the usual two. The east temple is dated at around 3100 BC. The remains of another temple, smaller, and older, having been dated to 3250 BC, are visible further towards the east.[2]
Of particular interest at the temple site is the rich and intricate stonework, which includes depictions of domestic animals carved in relief, altars, and screens decorated with spiral designs and other patterns. Demonstrative of the skill of the builders is a chamber set into the thickness of the wall between the South and Central temples and containing a relief showing a bull and a sow.[3]

Function in prehistory[edit]

Excavation of the site reveals that it was used extensively for rituals, which probably involved animal sacrifice. Especially interesting is that Tarxien provides rare insight into how the megaliths were constructed: stone rollers were left outside the South temple. Additionally, evidence of cremation has been found at the center of the South temple, which is an indicator that the site was reused as a Bronze Age cremation cemetery.[3]

Discovery and history[edit]


A relief showing goats and rams in one of the temples at Tarxien.
The large stone blocks were discovered in 1914 by local farmers ploughing a field.[3] After the accidental discovery of the nearby Tarxien hypogeum in 1913, the proprietor of the land underneath which the temples were buried figured that the large stones that were continually struck by workers' ploughs may also have had some archaeological value. On that notion, he contacted the director of the National Museum, Sir Themistocles Zammit, who began to dig even on his first inspection of the site, where he discovered the center of the temple compound. It was not long before Zammit found himself standing in what appeared to be an apse formed by a semicircle of enormous hewn stones. Over the course of three years, Zammit enlisted the help of local farmers and townspeople for an excavation project of unprecedented scale in Malta. By 1920, Zammit had identified and carried out restoration work on five separate but interconnected temples, all yielding a remarkable collection of artifacts, including the famous "fat lady" statue (a representation of a Mother Goddess or afertility charm), and several unique examples of prehistoric relief, including ships.[4] The temples were included on the Antiquities List of 1925.[5] Further excavations at the temples were conducted in the post-World War II period under the directorship of Dr. J.G. Baldacchino.

The Tarxien Temples with the protective tent constructed in 2015
Protective tent-like shelters, similar to those at Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra, were built around the Tarxien Temples in 2015,[6][7][8] being completed in December of that year.[9]

Significance[edit]

The discovery of the complex did much to further Malta's national identity, solidly confirming the existence of a thriving ancient culture on the island. Also, the general interest aroused by the finds engendered for the first time a public concern for the protection of Malta's historical treasures, including a need for management of the sites, the promulgation of laws, and other measures to protect and preserve monuments. At the same time, Sir Themistocles' thorough method in excavating the site paved the way for a new scientific approach toarchaeology.[4]

Posted by at No comments:
Subscribe to: Posts (Atom)